Thursday, November 28, 2019

Starship Troopers Review Essay Example

Starship Troopers Review Paper Essay on Starship Troopers I did not serve in the army. But it seems after this book was the first to question and whether it is good? And in general, I have nothing to reproach myself derailed quite honestly. However, until now, I was sure that as a result of lost nothing and gained a lot. But the book claims the opposite! I had heard that the film Verhoeven and the book on which it is removed, it is very different. But somehow subconsciously I did not expect much from the novel. Well military science fiction what to take with her? But no. Here the key word Heinlein. And this is not only a fantastic action movie, but rather a thriller and not Despite the fact that the military was not able to be me, in a period of my life I was faced with the reality of the army. The debt of the civil service have been in pieces, military camps, a lot of contact with the officers. This is certainly a very different reality, and to understand why it is so, it is necessary to pass through itself. All that sounds awful in the civilian world (the same hazing), it does not cause any particular emotion. Rigid rules and a clear procedure for alien army free air citizen. But precisely because there is another one. Forget about it most of the civilians, but it firmly to believe every soldier. We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer  «action » in the book is present (especially in the second half), but by and large these scenes just need to reflect the reality in which there is the main character. Mandatory for any blockbuster melodramatic line, there is almost arbitrary. The book is about the society and its problems, the army and its place in this society, the conflict of personal and public, and hard how to resolve the conflict. God forbid, I do not want to say that the novel is boring and akademichen . When reading virtually impossible to come off! But there is a second bottom. I do not need to think long to see all these spaceships and evil aliens only a means to convey the message of the author. I my understanding of this idea passed in the header. A citizen of the society can be considered only those who are willing to pay for a society of their lives. It sounds pathetic, but the book is very familiar with both meaning and reasons for such a statement. Society under the leadership of veterans on paper looks perfect, but the feasibility of this idea is hard to believe. Will there be enough veterans on all leadership positions? Where to get the veterans in peace or relatively peaceful periods? Society problems (financial, moral, cultural, etc.) to penetrate into the army is quite easy, especially in the non-military time In general it is rather a utopia. But think about causes.

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Habit 3 Put First Things First

Habit 3 Put First Things First Introduction Highly effective people are known to focus on discovering opportunities around them. They then utilize these opportunities to their advantage keenly taking into consideration their principles and values. They do this in order to achieve personal or organizational goals (Hergenhahn, 2005).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Habit 3 Put First Things First specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The decisions they make are centered and focused on already defined mission statements. For one to benefit fully from concepts of Habit 2 Put First Things First, one needs to have thoroughly understood and internalized Habit 1 and Habit 2. Habit 1 focuses on the individual’s character development (pro-activity). It is through the character that one develops in this stage that he or she is able to refrain from activities that do not contribute towards the achievement of the defined goals. Habit 2 begins with â€Å"an e nd† in mind. Stephen Covey (2004) emphasizes on creating a clear vision of one’s objective. This has to start with analyzing one’s current situation in order to know one’s position. It is by so doing that one is able to come up with a personal or organizational constitution. The latter draws clear guidelines and regulations towards achieving the short term and long term goals. The said goals converge to form the mission statement. The purpose of this study is to critically analyze the ideas and concepts of Habit 3 Put First Things First. The study reveals how this habit may be applied in the real world through use of practical examples. A look at the 2 X 2 matrix, delegation and recommendations will help to exemplify better the concepts of Habit 3 Put First Things First. The 2 X 2 Matrix Highly effective people recognize the activities that are important to them and those that are not important (Gazzaniga, 2010). With the use of 2 X 2 Matrix, Stephen Covey (2004) classifies the day to day activities into four categories; -Pressing matters 1 Urgent -Projects Important -Deadline driven activities Prevention Not Urgent 2 -Relationship building Implementing systems -Planning and preparations -Improving professional knowledge -Emails 3 Telephone Calls. Not Important Interruptions; a colleague walking in to the office Unplanned meeting Trivial 4 Busy Work Unproductive activities 1. Important and urgent are classified as Quadrant 1. 2. Important and not urgent are classified as Quadrant 2. 3. Urgent and not important are classified as Quadrant 3. 4. Not important and not urgent are classified as Quadrant 4. For effective management, Quadrant 1 activities should be given preference. All tasks should be evaluated to determine the important activities and their urgencies. It is good to deal with all important and urgent matters first. Deadline driven projects should be given priority too. Crisis matters and pressing problems sho uld be considered first as well.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To manage your life effectively based on the principles and values outlined in your mission statement, you have to focus on activities of Quadrant 2 especially the important activities which are not urgent. This works a long way towards improving your production capacity. For example, instead of embarking on planning each day at a time, it could be ideal for you to focus on weekly activities that are inline with the accomplishment of your personal goals and roles. For instance, a person who intends to reduce 10 kilograms of his or her body weight in one month can come up with a whole week schedule that outlines the activities he or she will undertake each day in order to reduce the desired weight. In the weekly plan, he or she can specify the diet to take each day taking into consideration the amount of calori es his or her body requires and adjust his or her meals to suit the required calories. He or she can also plan for the exercises to undertake each day of the week. He or she may allocate two days for jogging and three days for indoor gym activities. Another important aspect of Quadrant 2 involves preparation. A student who wishes to excel in his or her exams must do certain things that may enhance the chances of academic excellence for the particular student. This would involve studying all the course materials exhaustively and ensuring that he or she has covered the entire syllabus. He or she should embark on thorough revision of the entire course work. He or she can engage other students in discussions on the different topics in the course outline. A review of past exams would help him or her in understanding how the questions in the exams are set. The same case would apply to an engineer who wishes to be highly effective in his career. The engineer may consider enrolling for an a dvanced course in his profession. This would help him or her sharpen his professional skills and knowledge. He or she would also actively participate in seminars and workshops with an aim of boosting his or her professional attributes. Sometimes people engage themselves in activities that take a lot of their time. Those activities may not be necessarily important to the fulfillment of their goals. These are activities of Quadrant 3 which comprise urgent activities but which may not be very important or necessary. These activities are portrayed as urgent because they involve other people who may be important to people’s lives like friends and relatives. Activities of Quadrant 3 may have nothing to do with the realization of people’s personal goals. Sometimes these activities may be depicted as important. They may persuade many people to put more time and energy on them. They may not be as important as perceived. For example, in an office setup, a colleague may come to y our office to make an acquaintance. A small discussion may ensue and without both of you noticing, a substantial amount of time may eventually be wasted which would have otherwise been spent working towards the accomplishment of your organizational goals. Telephone calls may be other forms of distractions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Habit 3 Put First Things First specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Your callers make take a lot of your time by engaging you in conversations that may not have a productive impact on your work. It is important to know the purpose of the telephone call and assess whether it is worth giving your time to at that particular moment. It is from that point that you would be able to decide whether to take that call, postpone or ignore it. Though the internet is the greatest information tool, it has been misused in most organizations hindering the latter from achieving their goals. In certain c ases, you may find employees busy on the computers creating the impression that they are doing something substantial towards execution of the company’s mission. On the other hand, those employees may be busy chatting with their friends through the various social sites, responding to emails from their friends or surfing in the internet for materials of their personal interests. All these things are not essential in a person’s life that is why Covey (2004) classifies them as not important. They have very little significance to the attainment of the mission of any given company. Some small issues may arise in an organization prompting concerned managers to call for the so called â€Å"urgent meetings†. In such circumstances, the meeting agendas may not be carefully drawn and the parties participating in the said meetings may not be taken into consideration. Such meetings may not be adequately prepared for by all parties eventually leading to wastage of time by the concerned parties. These meetings may not add any value towards the fulfillment of the company’s mission. Quadrant 4 illustrates activities that are not important as well as not urgent. Certain people may give excuses of being busy with the intention of avoiding certain duties or activities given to them by their respective organizations. One may be surprised to find out that these people may not be as busy as they may portray to be. A closer examination on the lives of the said people may reveal that they may be engaged in activities that are not so important like watching movies, reading newspapers and novels. Ideally, it is important to reduce the time taken on these activities and concentrate more on the activities that would lead one to being highly effective in realizing either one’s personal or organizational goals and objectives. Delegation A highly effective person ought to understand that it is not possible to accomplish all the activities that will help him or her achieve the intended goals. It is therefore important that one identifies the specific activities to work on in achieving one’s goals. One needs to realize the strengths and weaknesses of the people that one plans to work with. By so doing, one would be capable of understanding the abilities of different people. When delegating, it is important to avoid telling the persons concerned what to do. It is imperative let them know the vision and goals to attain. Let them understand the desired values. Let them realize and appreciate your principles.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A person whose goal is to cut 10 kilograms of body weight in one month can delegate his or her diet planning to a professional nutritionist. If the person is a vegetarian, he can inform the nutritionist beforehand. By so doing, he would be letting the nutritionist know his values and principles. This way, he or she would have simply delegated some part his or her goal to a professional who can better handle the given assignment. Recommendation Proper time management is the key towards being highly effective for any one. With good time management, one may be able to effectively employ and implement Habit 3 Put First Things First. Conclusion Proper scheduling of one’s activities is the foundation towards implementing Habit 3 put first things first (Palmer Woolfe, 1999). Quite often, unexpected activities may arise and may have to be dealt with. A highly effective person should create a means of adapting to the unexpected activities when they arise. References Covey, S. R. (200 4). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. New York, USA: Free Press A Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc. Gazzaniga, M. (2010). Psychological Science. New York, USA: W.W. Norton Company. Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. Palmer, S. M., Woolfe, R. (1999). Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy. London, UK: Sage Publications.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Explain the 2 clauses and 3 Key elements Contained in the fourth Essay

Explain the 2 clauses and 3 Key elements Contained in the fourth Amendment that specifically pertains to search and seizure. be - Essay Example As provided by the second clause and explained in the Johnson case a valid search warrant must contain the following requirement: 1.) It must be issued by a neutral and detached magistrate; 2.) there must be presented to the magistrate an adequate showing of probable cause supported by oath or affirmation, usually in the form of an affidavit from a police officer; 3.) the warrant must describe with particularity the place to be searched and the items or persons to be seized. A neutral magistrate as provided in Shadwick v. City of Tampa (1972) must be â€Å"neutral and detached† and â€Å"capable of determining whether probable cause exists for the requested arrest or search.† Probable cause on the other hand means contemplates facts and circumstances within an officer’s personal knowledge that are sufficient â€Å"to warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief that an offense has been or is being committed.† Carroll v. United States (1925). And the s tandard of particularity as required for a valid warrant that the description be sufficiently precise in so that the officer executing the warrant can â€Å"with reasonable effort ascertain and identify the place intended (Steele v. Unites States [1925]) and that it leaves nothing to the discretion of the officers to inquire further (Marron v. United [1927)]).

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Reentry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reentry - Essay Example While serving the sentence they could be subjected to mental abuse or mental health treatment. This results in less and less people participating in vocational or pre-release educational programs. Without the skill sets required to survive, with the police record that cant be wiped or erased, no family accepting or supporting them and no where to go, great majority is re arrested in less than six months. It probably would be easy to pick people for the crimes they have committed as it is a necessary act for smooth and safe functioning of the society. However reintegrating them into the society is a task that seems an undaunted perpetual problem. As the number of ex-convicts continues to grow, their alienation poses as a threat to the society, which their imprisonment is expected to protect. The story of Jean Sanders narrated by Amanda Ripley in Living on the Outside touches all the issues faced by the ex-convict. Jean was picked by the law several times for petty drug dealing and car thieving. All he wanted was a normal life. His struggle is a representative case. During the 1990s America witnessed multiplying of prisons. It was forgotten that the more are locked inside, the more needed to be released. Rehabilitation was not the game of the day. Outside the prisons the Federal Government restricted welfare and housing facilities to the ex-criminals. In such case, when no education to support, no vocational training, a non-accepting society and family who is not ready to take in, these ex-criminals turn to crime again. This has also resulted in the law enforcing system turning into supervisory system. Sanders had to make valiant efforts to pick up a better job. He is unable to do manual labor due to injury caused during imprisonment. This is again representative as most ex-criminals have serious health and medical problems. The parolees are expected to do several reporting. As quoted in the article, â€Å"the system is designed

Monday, November 18, 2019

Empowerment in health promotion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Empowerment in health promotion - Essay Example The aspects of empowerment, as used in general and in particular in the healthcare sector are presented below; emphasis is given on the theoretical approaches used for explaining the involvement of empowerment in the healthcare sector. It is proved that empowerment can be viable in health promotion but only if certain conditions exist; the internal and external environment of each case and the ability of the medical staff involved in the relevant schemes are quite important for ensuring the success of empowerment in the specific field. The differentiations identified in the interpretation of empowerment in health promotion can be considered as justified, taking into consideration the significant differences that can be identified in healthcare settings worldwide, as this issue is analytically explained below. 2. Meaning of empowerment In order to understand the role of empowerment in health promotion, it would be necessary to refer primarily to the context of empowerment, i.e. its ch aracteristics and mission, as identified in various social areas. Then, its use in health promotion could be evaluated taking into consideration the needs of the specific sector, as identified in healthcare settings worldwide. ... Based on the above definition, the following key characteristics of empowerment should be highlighted: empowerment needs to be provided, in other words, it cannot be assumed as existing. Rather it should be clearly given, under the terms that it can be used appropriately, meaning the skills and the capabilities of the person who is provided with empowerment (Barry et al. 2006). In any case, the discretion provided through empowerment is rather limited. In accordance with Ginnodo (1997) empowerment is differentiated from ‘dumping and anarchy’ (Ginnodo 1997, p.34). This means that empowerment needs to be based on specific rules/ suggestions which will be ordered without discriminating – always under the terms that the ‘empowered’ is able to understand and follow the particular orders. On the other hand, the elements and the requirements of empowerment can be differentiated across social and business activities; in business, the term empowerment is consi dered as a key tool for increasing motivation and self-confidence of employees (Quinn et al. 1998). From this point of view, in business area, empowerment is related to concepts and initiatives as organizational supervision, criteria of reward and job design (Quinn et al. 1998). Indeed, when empowerment needs to be evaluated as an element of the business environment, emphasis should be given to the following issue: at what level empowerment has actually promoted self-efficacy across the organization. At this point, the skills of the manager can be also revealed taking into consideration the tasks allocated to employees – under the terms that the goals set need to be achievable, based on the skills of each employee

Friday, November 15, 2019

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

All Quiet On The Western Front: Themes :: essays research papers

All Quiet On the Western Front: Themes All Quiet on the Western Front is a graphic depiction of the horrors of war. In the short note before Chapter One, Remarque lets the reader know exactly what themes he intends. War is a savage and gratuitous evil, war is unnatural, and war is responsible for the destruction of an entire generation. Remarque is very clear on the strength of his themes, and uses graphic imagery to convey to the reader the physical and psychological impact that war has on humanity. But Remarque uses more than graphic description to support his themes. Remarque also utilizes a very defined nature motif, with the forces of nature constantly rebelling against the conflict it plays battleground to. With the Earth itself, the source of all things, supporting his themes, Remarque has a seemingly unbiased witness bearing testament to his observations. Remarque can use nature as the judge to condemn war, along with shocking imagery, so that his literature remains without a trace of nationalism, political ill will, or even personal feelings. It should be noted that the nature motif is carried consistently throughout the novel, and that it supports many of the author's lesser themes. For the purpose of portraying war as something terrible, though, the nature motif is expressed most dramatically in the following passages. These passages mark the three distinct stages of nature's condemnation of war: rebellion, perseverance, and erasure. The first passage occurs in Chapter Four when the troops are trucked out to the front to install stakes and wire. However, the narrator's squad is attacked unexpectedly by an English bombardment. With no visible enemy to fight, the soldiers are forced to take cover and live out the bombardment. In the process, the earth is shredded and blown asunder. It is during this melee that many of the companies' horses are wounded, and begin to bellow terribly. "It is unendurable. It is the moaning of the world, it is the martyred creation, wild with anguish, filled with terror, and groaning." The bombing subdues, but the bellowing continues. "The screaming of the beasts becomes louder. One can no longer distinguish whence in this now quiet silvery landscape it comes; ghostly, invisible, it is everywhere, between heaven and earth it rolls on immeasurably." Remarque is none too subtle in using the dying horses as a metaphor for the Earth's own anguish. As the men face a new horror, nature is revolting against the damage being done to it. Remarque will return to this usage of the nature motif, with war being anomalous and unnatural in the "natural" world.

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Local Policy Paper

IntroductionThe criminal justice system of Texas (U.S.A) covers both criminal justice and civil justice, consist of law enforcement, law adjudication (the court system), and criminal corrections. Law enforcers includes; attorneys, sheriff and police departments, and the state Department of Public Safety. Whilst, criminal corrections includes; prisons, pardons, and paroles.Additionally, the criminal justice in Texas involves Office of the Attorney General (OAG). The Office of the Attorney General is the state’s top lawyer and law enforcer, which is elected by the citizens of Texas. The prime responsibility of the Office of the Attorney General includes; defending the laws and constitution of the state, represent the state in lawsuit / court cases, and commend on bond issues.In addition, the responsibilities of the Office of the Attorney General includes; â€Å"heading of state agencies and other state officials and agencies, defending against challenges to state laws and suits against both state agencies and individual employees of the state, issuing legal opinions when requested by the Governor, and serving as legal counsel to all boards and agencies of state government†.The Antitrust and Civil Medicaid Fraud Division and Consumer Protection Division investigate in violations of state and federal antitrust statues, and consumer fraud and civil lawsuits. Both    bureaus of the state are responsible in prosecuting such cases.Types of LawThe justice system of Texas are divided into; Civil law, Criminal law and Administrative law. The civil law covers ant disputes between; individuals and / corporations in the state. Criminal law encompasses crimes committed against the state, and any violations under the laws of the state.Administrative laws include laws set and enforces by the government other than the legislative body of the state. For example, the state sets curfew among minors and imposes fines to violators. To be able to put on trial the alleg ed citizen, the government of the state does have local courts, district (law) firms, lawyers, forensic laboratories, police and jails.Criminal Justice SystemIn general, most citizens wanted to punished criminals harshly, treat them as they wouldn’t create any crime in the future. In most of the states, the justice system provides a moral trade-off between public safety and the protection of the rights of the criminals. Texas criminal justice system prefers immediate and strict punishment for the citizens violating the laws of the state.The criminal justice system in Texas has three components; law enforcement and criminal prosecution, criminal trial and appeals, corrections. Each component of the criminal justice system of Texas comprises hundreds of employees. The Department of Public Safety as part of the criminal justice system of the state patrols roadways and other facilities of the state.The court system of Texas follows a hierarchy, in which, local courts are decentra lized among municipalities of Texas. The Supreme Court of Texas functions to regulate policies and laws among local courts. Unlike in other countries, the states in America do have each supreme courts and the county (state) are considered autonomous / taken apart from the country’s policies and laws.Each of the components of the criminal justice of the state does function separately, with its own structure and implementation of its duties. Even though the criminal justice system of the state set standards on how the crimes will be investigated and prosecuted, this varies among localities / municipalities in the state. On the other hand, the criminal justice system in Texas performs strict policies despite its decentralization of the system. Most of the criminals are prosecuted and put up into jail (Brauchli, 2005).Sentencing and PenaltiesSentencing among criminals is based on the graded penalties which specify the degree of penalties to be imposed with regards to the degree o f crime the accused done. The degree of crime is differentiated between misdemeanor and felonies. Misdemeanors are crimes with lower degree of punishment compare to felonies. Misdemeanor does involve petty crimes such as, minor drug possessions, generally crimes without involvement in injuring a person / citizen of the state. On the other hand, felonies are more serious crimes than misdemeanors. This includes; theft, homicide, and damages of state’s property. Both cases are prosecuted in district courts, severe crimes are prosecuted at the Supreme Court of Texas (The Justice System, 2006).Misdemeanor are considered minor crimes with minor punishments (graded in classes) while felonies are penalized by degrees. Upon committing felonial crime, the criminals are convicted to death. Repeat offenders; involve assigning higher degree of felony. The criminal in return, may be convicted to a higher degree of punishment and in worst scenario, amputation of human rights of the accused. Implications of Policies to Criminal Justice System of TexasThe society set standards to what their state would behave and the policies to be implemented. The policies and laws imposed to provide the criminal justice system of the state a guide on how the system will investigate and prosecute crimes, accused the criminals, and punish them accordingly to the degree of the crime they committed. The criminal justice of the state is transparent, meaning that the system works to defend the constitution, protect the citizens of Texas against criminals, and provide the citizens policies in order to maintain peace in the state.The criminal justice system of the state is not being harsh and cruel to its citizens; the system only maintains upright decisions on which the citizens can expect fair treatment among any individuals. Weak implementation of policies and laws confers unfair justice, abuse of public property and upheaval.Wherever the citizens vote for the Sheriff and / or the Attorney General, the state shows the importance of democracy in Texas. The fast punishment to criminals made the justice system of the state respectable and fair. Criminals are subjected to prisonment if the court found the accused guilty. In short terms, the policies and laws are applied and not misused.On other hand, the criminal justice system of the state creates a back lag because of many positions allotted in the system. The system creates inefficiency in terms of uses of public funds, and ineffectivity in running the office (Texas, 2006).

Friday, November 8, 2019

How does Shakespeare present the relationship between Romeo and Juliet Essays

How does Shakespeare present the relationship between Romeo and Juliet Essays How does Shakespeare present the relationship between Romeo and Juliet Paper How does Shakespeare present the relationship between Romeo and Juliet Paper clever and coherent structure is used in play. Dramatic irony and stage-craft is used to show clear arrangement of characters . The play focuses on the romantic love relationship between Romeo and Juliet who belong to families who have had a long standing feud and the consequences of disobeying their parents’. In my opinion, the relationship is one of true love and that fate has brought Romeo and Juliet together. In the 1600s when the play was written in Shakespeare’s time girls needed to obey to their parents’ arranged marriage and obey to husband so girls could not chosen who they would marry. Love between Romeo and Juliet seems to be foolish . The play is written to audience in 17th century. The play reflects that the institutions and unwritten rules created a lot of victims in that century. Both of them are came from feuding familities signifies that a love facing challenges and danger in 17th century. The audience may feel confused for Romeo and Juliet and this play might not evoke their feelings to change their attitudes and view this distinctive love as foolish behaviour as education in 17th century. In a modern day audience may be felt more sorrow than the people in ancient time because of changed of education. People in modern time have chance to choose who they would marry rather than obey parents’ arrabged marriage. The ingenious linguistic features are used by Shakespeare to show tension, timidness, love and happiness. Tension is created when Romeo was being discovered. In the same time, Romeo dropped his ‘love’ from Rosaline and love Juliet deeply even his life under threat from Tybalt from quote â€Å" To strike him dead, I hold it not a sin. †. This emphasizes how deep of his love. The description of Juliet from Romeo like â€Å"burn bright† signified Juliet ‘s beauty is bright light when shimmer his mind from quote â€Å" O she doth teach the torches to burn bright†. Bright light signifies freedom and true love to Romeo. Bright light is a powerful image to suggest that Juliet is a ray of light to darkness to Romeo and â€Å"burn bright† is a good alliteration to express beauty of Juliet. It’s noticeable enough to audience to emphasizes the supernatural attraction in Act 1, Scene 5. And Romeo ignored all the potential danger suggests that they are fated together. And we know that Romeo love Juliet at first sight from quote â€Å"So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows†. This quote suggests that Juliet’s beauty overcome all the lady in party. This is one of metaphor to show the Romeo was allured by Juliet. In Act 2 scene 1, Romeo describe Juliet as sun but it is still night. They knew that Romeo spoke metaphorically to tell us Juliet is the sun and it is no longer night. It is a powerful metaphor to transform world in service of love. Shakespeare developed a structure which is used to remind the audience the relationship of Montagues and Capulets. Romeo going to the Capulets’ party is considered to be wrong but he insisted and met Juliet . Then, he is allured by presence of Juliet under threat of Tybalt. This structure tells us this love is full of danger. If Romeo don’t insist to go to this party, he may not met Juliet so this tragedies won’t happen. But this tragedies was in Shakespeares’s purpose. The action of Romeo escaped from the party and saw Juliet stand on the balcony and took about himself dramatically suggests that they were fated together and loved each together. To conclude my essay, throughout the key scenes of Romeo and Juliet’s meeting, Shakespeare orderly portray how true, pure and dangerous of their puppy love. Romeo is changed from a traumatized boy to a eager and passionate man. Juliet become disobeyed. They insisted to have an affair and ignorance any danger. Their love was obsessive based on appearance or self sought. Their love is showed by actions which cannot described by words.

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Minivans Essays - Airbag, Bags, Target Audience, Automobile Safety

Minivans Essays - Airbag, Bags, Target Audience, Automobile Safety Minivans The minivan today falls roughly within the $30000 - $40000 price range. As a result, not everyone who could benefit from this automobile can afford it. Minivans target young families (parents between the ages of 25-34) with 2-3 children or more residing in rural and suburban areas in which transportation needs are involved. Despite the minivan's convenience, studies from show its target group has been decreasing and has been forecasted to continue decreasing in the years to come. Many factors contribute to this decreasing target group. First and foremost, the decreasing number of children per family. Also, the price, limiting its buyers to those who attain a certain income (studies show income earned by members of society is directly proportionate to their level of education). An income level predominantly earned by members of the middle to upper middle class. It has also been noted that people have been and are continuing to migrate from the more rural areas to the cities due to hig her incomes and a faster pace of life, decreasing the amount of transportation needed to commute. More importantly, according to Stats, the family structure is changing, and due to the increase in cost of living, more women (between the ages of 25-34) are joining the workforce. This happens to be the age bracket where most women have their children. Married couples with no children are the fastest growing demographic group. Families, with children, are a shrinking market for this product. More people from 5 to 32 years of age die as a result of traffic accidents than any other cause. This leads parents to prefer the use of a vehicle that provides a reliable, safe and secure driving experience. Families spend most of their time and money to find a vehicle that is designed to prevent car accidents and protect passengers and drivers. A family's primary concern is the well being and safety of their children on the road. Therefore, consumers prefer to choose vehicles with family friendly features. In order to satisfy the consumer's safety needs automotive companies build vehicles, with their tastes and want in mind. Manufactures install government-specified (See Vehicle Safety Act) lights, reflectors, brakes, tires, windows, windshield wipers, defrosters and dash board controls to prevent accidents and install seat belts, air bags, head restraints and bumper system to protect car occupants. These features not only satisfy government regulations, but also please the safety conscious families of today's market. Evolution The nuclear family has gone through drastic changes through the course of the last few decades. From a single breadwinner, supporting a household of four or more children, the family unit has graduated to double incomes with only one or two children and a higher level of education for both the man and the women and even to same sex couples. Due to inflation and women increasingly entering the work force this change was self-evident. With this continuing trend families are becoming fewer and fewer. Consumers are ready to pay more to remain style conscious. Bigger, more luxurious appeal to this market and conform to their opinion of a worthwhile vehicle. Purchasing Power As for the purchasing power of families, the median income has gradually increased over the course of the last 10 years. Rising along with incomes are inflation rates and single parent households. This demonstrates the buying power of today's young families with double o r single incomes, has dropped dramatically. Even with the greater availability of credit which increases buying power. Over the last decade and in today's unstable economy an increase in purchasing revenues seems unlikely with the lowered buying power of today's young families. A decrease in buying power demonstrates a shift in buying patterns towards more value for each dollar spent illustrating Engel's Law. Young families are now leaning towards smaller more cost efficient cars with longer warranties (forcing the automotive industry to assume longer warranty liabilities) This trend is confirmed by the decrease in revenues of the automobile industry over the last decade. Bibliography Internet Sites www.statcan.ca www.economagic.com www.enm.maine.edu/courses/business/bua263web/lecture5html http://theautochannel.com/content/news/press//press0111788.html. www.entrepreneurmag.com http://nova.umuc.edu www.car.org/legislation/ www.caa.ca www.tc.gc.ca (motor vehicle safety act) www.cwrl.utexas.edu/daniel/hyperwriting/arguments/incalacaterra/edu.html/ Bibliography Books Sens, Allen, and Peter Stoett. Global Politics: Origins, Currents, Directions. Scarborough: International Thompson Publishing Nelson, 1998. The Public Pulse,