The Psychological Impact Of Imprisonment For Two Weeks

â€Å"What happens when you put good people in an evil place? Do the people overwhelm the evil or does the evil of the situation overwhelm the good people?† Psychologist Philip Zimbardo proves throughout his research that when people are put into certain roles they feel a need to conform to that role. Everyone can harbour an evil side of their personality but it takes a certain environment or circumstance to bring it out. In a prison, will a guard abuse their power? Or will a prisoner have a mental breakdown? In the Stanford Prison Experiment, Zimbardo saw that when â€Å"normal† people are given too much power, they can transform into harsh oppressors within days. Although the main intent of the experiment was to test the psychological impact of imprisonment for two weeks, the findings from this experiment were so much more: with the guards immediate gain of power and social ranking and the prisoners humiliation and dehumanization, the experiment proved that environm ent is the main factor in the development of corruption and change in character of both guards and prisoners. Since then Philip Zimbardo has become the president of the Heroic Imagination Project. This organization provides tools and strategies to help individuals take positive action at crucial moments in their lives. Zimbardo also wrote a book on his psychological findings called The Lucifer Effect. He explains his experiment and also brings into it the abuse at Abu Ghraib and another famous study called the MilgramShow MoreRelatedThe Legend Of Colton H. Bryant By Alexandra Fuller1692 Words   |  7 Pagesfrom Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment. The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates how not only landscapes and wilderness can shape humans, but how places like prison can shape them as well. Zimbardo wanted to test the psychological effects of imprisonment so in 1971 he created a mock prison in the basement of Stanford University’s psychology department and randomly assigned participants to be either a prison guard or a prisoner. While in the mock prison, prisoners wore a dress with theirRead MoreEthics and Stanford Prison Experiment Essay2160 Words   |  9 PagesEthics and the Stanford Prison Experiment In 1971 Philipp Zimbardo carried out one of the most ethically controversial psychological experiment the ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’. Originally he aimed to study how much our behavior is structured by the social role we occupy. Describing the study briefly 24 undergraduates with no criminal and psychological record were chosen for the research to play the roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of Stanford UniversityRead MoreThe Limitations Of Male Prison Suicide2431 Words   |  10 Pagesthe restrictive prison regime, isolation, and psychiatric illnesses among other factors. Factors that were continuously associated with suicide in prisons among early stage and long term male prisoners highlighted by the current study included psychological factors and substance abuse as the most significant inflictions. Adjustment to prison regime, entrapment and poor social and family support complete the list of major contributory factors to male prison suicides. The only differences between theRead MoreThe Effects Of Parental Incarceration On Children3942 Words   |  16 Pagesto skip school (Tinerney, Grossman Resch, (1995). Significance of the Problem to Social Work Several expectations directed our inspection of this problem. First, we assumed that the child was living in a family system and to understand the impact of incarceration on the child, the system of relationships within the family net needed to be considered (Belsky, 1999); Sameroff, 1975). Second, we expect that the developmental level of the child at the time of parental incarceration and the qualityRead MoreStudy on African American Youth and Young Adults with Incarcerated Fathers2164 Words   |  9 PagesThis paper proposes to address the psychological needs, behavioral factors, social factors surrounding a stratified sample of African American youth and young adults with incarcerated fathers. In doing so, assessment measures possessing test-retest reliability to assess subjects’ mental health conditions, stress related behavior, socioeconomic status, and interpersonal relationships. Incarcerated fathers who are imprisoned for non-violent crimes and are opened to reconcil e and/or improve their relationshipRead MoreReview : The Stanford Prison Experiment Essay1749 Words   |  7 Pagesobservation of current prison settings; the noticeable observation would induce the prisoners and guards to change the way they behave during the experiment. Therefore, the experimenters decided to create a â€Å"new† prison, that is similar in a social-psychological manner to that of an actual institution. To advantageously test their theory, they used 21 participants (10 prisoners 11 guards) that are all considered undifferentiated from the rest of society, or in other words â€Å"normal-average†. Choosing participantsRead MoreThe Disproportionate Incarceration Of African American Males Essay1872 Words   |  8 Pagesincarcerated population, which is defined by those confined in either prison or jail (Crutchfield Weeks, 2015). Although, African-Americans account for roughly 13% of the United States population, they comprised 37% of the male prison p opulation (Carson, 2015; U.S. Census Bureau, 2016) and 35.4% of the male jail population within the United States in 2014 (Minton Zeng, 2015). The imprisonment of over 750,000 African American males constitutes a social issue because it targets a historicallyRead MoreSocial Work Assessment At Baseline6383 Words   |  26 PagesOther interventions to reduce early attrition include suggesting an in-depth social work assessment at baseline, identifying barriers to maintaining follow-up after transfer to outpatient. Initially, increased dropout during the first week of outpatient follow-up was observed, particularly with patients residing ‘out-of-town’. On further investigation, those patients complained of difficulty in securing transportation to the treatment centre. Such cases were reported to the governance committee,Read MoreEmployment Relationship Between Company, Employees And Legal Requirements2201 Words   |  9 Pagesthe economy, due to the economic recession. 2. Reputation of the Company is affecting the employment relationship this is not only because customers are going to competitors but also because employee perceptions of how their company is viewed can impact on behaviors. Internal 1. Employee motivation is affecting the employment relationship, by the company changing shift patterns, reducing benefits and introducing new absence recording scheme it is demotivating the staff. 2. Leadership is a key roleRead MoreThe Analysis of the „Das Experiment† Movie2058 Words   |  9 PagesPrison Experiment, with the addition of the violent and sexual scenes in order to enhance the psychological effect on the audience. This experiment is a psychological research of the following individual and group processes: †¢ human reaction to the personal restraint and restraint of liberty †¢ role behavior in the situation of imprisonment †¢ behavior of people caught up in the extreme conditions †¢ the impact of imposed social roles on behavior †¢ the processes of group dynamics and social influence

Design And Structure Of A Computer System - 1307 Words

464 –Software Architecture Assignment-01 B.Vivekanand Cwid: 802327106 1. Architecture: The overall design or structure of a computer system with hardware and the software required to run it. (Or) A fundamental design of computer hardware, software, or both. Importance of Architecture for software product †¢ Build to change instead of build to last †¢ Understand the end user requirements and the domain before designing project †¢ Find sub-systems in product and consider layers and components to abstract them and identify the key interfaces †¢ Use an increasing and relative approach to designing the architecture †¢ Documenting decisions and identify key risks †¢ Delivery of higher quality at a lower price †¢ Reuse of code will help to faster software development †¢ Incremental code optimization There are three reasons for developing software architecture. 1. Communication among stakeholders. Stakeholders are important for mutual understanding, discussions, agreement, and communication. 2. Consider how the application may need to change over time to address new requirements and challenges and construct a new design which is flexible. 3. Understand the key engineering decisions and the areas where mistakes are most often made. Understand in getting these key decisions right the first time so that the design is more flexible and less likely to be broken by changes. 2. A viewpoint is a collection of designs, templates, andShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Computational Design Thinking1624 Words   |  7 PagesLeach Computational Design Thinking The dominance of computational programs in the architectural career has become dominant throughout the years. It could be said that it has taken over the entire practice and that the human aspect had been taken out completely. In the book Computational Design Thinking, by Achim Menges and Sean Ahlquist this is discussed. It is important to understand how certain things work in an environment in other to comprehend how a design computer system actually works. InRead MoreSoftware Design Of A Computer Based System1738 Words   |  7 PagesA key requirement of the software design of a computer-based system is to transform basic requirements into an architecture that describes the software s top-level structure and identifies its components. Accomplishment of this requirement is through architectural design, providing a blueprint for developing the framework of the software (Mattsson, Lundell, Lings, Fitzgerald, 2009). The establishment of the framework involves examining the software requirements document and designing a modelRead MoreThe Unified Software Development Process Framework828 Words   |  4 PagesReflections of chapter 1, 2 and 3: Chapter 1: Computer Technology: Your Need to Know Unified Process: The Unified Software Development Process is a popular iterative and incremental software development process framework. Fig.1.1 – Disciplines and phases in the Unified Process Phases under Unified process: 1) The Inception phase: It basically focuses on establishing the project s scope and vision. 2) The Elaboration phase: It focuses on establishing the system s requirements and architecture. 3)Read More Company Database Design Model Essay1013 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction As a requirement for our Database Management System I subject, we were assigned to create a database design model for a certain company. Since our instructor allowed us to select any company, we chose _____ ____ _____; further details about this establishment will be explained in the later part of this article. It’s been known that a company with a good business design flow would most likely be much more prone to success since it is the foundation on how a company should developRead MoreDesigning A Job Design Exercise1477 Words   |  6 Pagesmotivated and so it will reduce the unnecessary competition and rivalry. With proper tooling, the structure of the organization does not really count as long as the team is properly compiled and all inclusive. Job Design Job design is work arrangement with an aim of reducing or overcoming job dissatisfaction and employees feeling bored due to doing repetitive jobs making them machine-like. Job design tries to raise employees’ productivity levels such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personalRead MoreEssay on The Difference Between Logical and Physical Network Design1016 Words   |  5 PagesThe Difference Between Logical and Physical Network Design Abstract Connecting computers together to create a network greatly increases the communication capabilities and can even save a company substantial amounts of time and money. A well thought out network design from a small home network to a large corporate intranet can be a deciding factor in the success of a network. Two important steps in the designing of a successful network are the logical designing phase and physical designing phaseRead MoreIntro to System Analysis and Design1720 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to System Analysis and Design    1. INTRODUCTION Systems are created to solve problems. One can think of the systems approach as an organized way of dealing with a problem. In this dynamic world, the subject System Analysis and Design, mainly deals with the software development activities. 2. Defining Your System A collection of components that work together to realize some objective forms a system. Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing andRead MoreComputer Systems Design And Related Services Industry908 Words   |  4 PagesFirms within the Computer Systems Design and Related Services Industry business deal with the writing, modifying, testing and management of computer software to meet the needs of customers. Employees that work in this industry code for large programs, install different types of software, and customize it to each customer s needs (Computer Scientists and Database Administrators). Specifically, Firms within the Industry design and create computer systems that integrate computer hardware, softwareRead MoreThe Impact Of Information Technology On Work Organisations Essay789 Words   |  4 Pageseffects on the structure, management and functioning of most organisations. It demands new patterns of work organisation and effects individual jobs, the formation and structure of groups, the nature of supervision and managerial roles. Information technology results in changes to lines of command and authority, and influences the need for reconstructing the organisation and attention to job design. Computer based information and decision support systems influence choicesRead MoreThe Advantages Of Database Management Systems1577 Words   |  7 Pagesb) Critically evaluate the advantages of database management systems Advantages of DBMS Data independence: - the separation of data structure of database from the application program that uses the data is called data independence in database management system; you can easily change the structure of database without modifying the application program. For example you can modify the size and data type of a data items ( fields of a database table).data independence is usually consider from two points

Diversification - Harvard Business Review Pest Analysis

Question: Discuss about the Strategies for Diversification, Harvard Business Review? Answer: Introduction As a marketing consultant, the chosen organization is Tasty African food known well as an African restaurant in London. Tasty African food offers the diverse menu to its customers with superior quality food and services. The major goal of the business is to provide the appropriate variety, ambience, entertainment and effective staff members to develop the best approach for people in the market place. The business aims to remain the high quality food and services with respect to clients satisfaction. The vision of the business is to offer high quality and nutritious food to the customers. (Grant, 2000) Assessment of market environment SWOT The SWOT analysis of the chosen restaurant are as follows: Strengths Friendly and cooperative staff Effective schemes of training and development Proper involvement through trust and delegation Customer loyalty provided by Tasty American Foods nt systems and process Weakness Lack of new products Poor competitiveness and high amount of prices Financial issues Regular absence of staff Poor communication Opportunities There are opportunities with major features that helps in the effect of the performance such as: Competitors strengths and weaknesses Technological advancements New markets Threats Levels of unemployment Environmental laws and policies (Zapoli, 2005) Pest analysis Political factors: The government of UK creates strict rules and regulations for the food market. There are increased level of rules and regulations in the market place. Economic factors: The market is rapidly growing and it is easy to enter the market. Thus, it can do better as the price factor is important. (Ansoff, 2007) Social factors: The people in UK have busy lifestyles but they offer quick and convenient services food of African taste. Thus, people are health conscious and look for healthy and tasty foods that are offered by Tasty African foods. Technological factors: The Tasty African food plays an important role for the ongoing success in the company. Online marketing are getting done via games, promotions of new products and offers on the website. (Williams, 2010) Target market The target market of the restaurant includes the right target market of African students, entrepreneurs and adults. After successful research, the restaurant found that the restaurant could be set on customer satisfaction based on the culture. They are very selective in case of quality and they cater to different market segments that involves tourists during the summer seasons. They provide the best place and open to entertain the people from the age group of 25-45 years of age. The restaurant is not limited to African people but also attracts major parts of UK. (Jorgensen, 2003) Marketing mix The chosen marketing mix is important to meet the needs of the customers to satisfy the needs with respect to promotion, price, place etc. Products: The restaurant help to meet the needs of the customers with important aspects of function in terms of high level of performance. Ambience is highly important and the quality of food plays a better role to attract the customers. Food includes all African foods and beverages. (Mintel, 2009) Place: The restaurant is located in UK region to attract the African tourists, students, and corporates in London. The restaurant offers huge facilities to the customers and allows unique feature to develop the culture as well as tradition in the famous city called as London. The use of culture and symbol represents tasty foods with proper use of culture in the restaurant. Promotion: Promotion is the major technique to communicate with the customers. It help the customers to involve in the process of encouraging consumers to avail the offer. It includes promotion and Tasty African food uses print media, electronic mediums and road shows, public relations to promote the brand and the products. With the help of trade magazines and print mediums, the target market is accessible to seek for the products. (Lynn, 2009) Price: Company uses penetration strategy of pricing to develop the larger volumes of sales and it starts with low price offerings to the increase on prices. Porters model Porters five forces model is based on five forces such as threats of entry, supplier and buyers power, substitutes and competitors etc. The threats of entry offers new skills and to increase the market share. There are major barriers to entry such as Economies of scale Product differentiation Capital needs Access to channels of distribution and Government policies Suppliers: Suppliers can exert bargaining power on respondents in an industry by increasing prices of goods, thus, powerful suppliers can meet with the profitability in the industry. Suppliers power depends on market situation and it helps to improve the ability of the industry. The supplier can integrate the business and there could have improvements in the ability of the industry. (Porter, 2005) Buyers: Customers focuses on high quality products and services and the customer is powerful if it is focused in high volume. The buyers are likely to shop for favorable price and buyers are less price sensitive. The buyers can also seek for alternative suppliers and it might play an important role in terms of product, therefore, the buyers are likely to shop for the favorable cost and believes in selective purchases. Buyers are usually less sensitive in the industry. Substitutes: With respect to the prices, consumer switches the products and industry. The industry might suffer in terms of earnings and profits. Substitutes limit the profits in normal cases and also decreases the amount. Rivalry: Rivalry include the related restaurant besides the destination such as Duntai Ltd and Squires African restaurant in London. The company might suffer in terms of loss of clients if they offer high prices. There might have chances that the company can move to the competitors. Threats to entry: There are possibly high entry of threats with respect to the changing needs of customers and hygiene as well as healthy food. Good hospitality is important for customers and they prefer to select the health aspects. (Mason Stark, 2004) Needs and wants of customers The major needs of the customers are to focus on the healthy and hygienic food of superior quality. Customer looks for high variety of foods and soothing ambience is required to attract the customers. Innovative products and offerings are important for customers. Thus, they seek for excellent services, quality of food as well as ambience to enjoy their food and time with families or friends. (Napier, 2006) Customer needs and wants Availability of products in the Restaurant. Less waiting time for food Soothing and peace environment for food enjoyment Ambience and varieties of food offerings High quality and fresh healthy food for value (National statistics, 2010) Product / service in the organization Tasty African food offers high blend of all African cuisines from multiple parts of Africa. The menu is concentrated to have a range of varieties. This changes every six months with specials tradition. Thus, the staffs, kitchen and house staffs will be trained well in terms of food preparation and presentation. This way, it offers high quality services to the customers. They will ensure that the customers will be offered with the strong environment and best place with the comfortable and relaxing as well as appealing unique experience. Pricing strategies used for the products / services The restaurant offers multiple courses that includes fixed pricing strategy. It involves starters, deserts, African cocktail drinks etc. The restaurant is very particular about pricing and the menu varieties in terms of the experiences. The restaurant is charged very reasonably with a maximum menu price of 12 pounds. Thus, it appeals the structure of the restaurant i.e. the factors such as services that contributes to the overall experiences. (Tasty African food, 2015) In case of Tasty African food, the restaurant offers high level of opportunities for various ethnic of the restaurants and seeks for high quality food. In west and South London, there has been high opportunities to offer the good pricing schemes to the customers so that customers can select the food accordingly. The appeal and the structure of the restaurant are known to be the most important factors of consideration and adds to the overall experience of the customers. Therefore, the restaurant is deliberately priced at a mid-tier level that allows people to eat at a high quality restaurant on a lower cost. This way, consumers are happy always with the price related items and focuses on high quality food. (Reuvid Millar, 2003) Recommendations Promotion is all about communication and the Tasty African foods are lacking effective communication strategies. It should ensure proper awareness on the existence of the product as well as the positioning of the products in the minds of the customer. Television and social media plays a great role to attract millions of customers and Tasty African food uses these channels to attract the target group. Packaging is done in an appropriate manner and company also offers buy one combo offer and get the beverage drink free to sustain and create customer attraction. Therefore, there is a need to use major activities for promotion. It should be based on market strategy and budget of the company. (Barrow. et.al, 2005) The Tasty African food should split its promotion into two major types called as above the line promotion and below the line promotion. The above the line promotion will help the restaurant to promote its products and services through independent media such as advertisements on television and newspapers. This way, the Tasty African food can target the right kind of audience towards the restaurant. This will help the company to succeed in the market place for long term. It will also increase the level of customer retention. With the focus on below the line promotion, the promotional activities like direct emailing, discounts and offers schemes, money off coupons etc. will help to target the right audience. (Riley, 2015) Promotional message for communication The promotional message that could be used for communication can be formulated as a unique restaurant with superior quality and great food served in an eclectic atmosphere. With the selection of famous business publications and mediums, specific market penetration will be chosen for the entire population. The clients will also attract with the help of companys website. Therefore, Tasty African Food should try to encourage its customers with the help of media promotions and advertisements. This way, it can increase the life-span of the company through maximum advertisements. It will be able to manage the segments of customers who can enjoy high quality food and services. This will create the effective advertisement campaigns and it will use the concept of Spice of Life with the image and recognition of local press and medias along with the diverse menu. (Binks Ennew, 2007) Special events and promotions and online communities will also increase the source of marketing. Thus, the brochures should be provided to the guests to display the food prices, varieties and menu. This way, it will be able to produce high quality and well-maintained website. Online orders will also increase the maximum potential customers and their visits to the restaurant. Issues There were issues in terms of communication among staff members. Due to lack of communication, there were issues with effective implementation of marketing plan. Interviews with customers and information collected from questionnaires also were limited that limit the responses in front of the staff members. There are issues with every marketing plan and the initial expenses need to be financed in a suitable manner. The current business performs with the effective knowledge and skills of the consumers but the marketers faced challenges in terms of timeline as well. There were less time to implement the market plan. The success of any marketing plan is based on its management and implementation. It needs to be implemented carefully. Thus, it needs proper planning with forecasting. Marketer faced challenges with the bureaucratic layers in implementing the marketing plans. There were no IT based system to attain exact information on time. Thus, it should be dependent on strategic IT system. Information planned should be based on the proper planning and it should be correct. If the marketer will use contingency plans, the problems can be fixed successfully. (Collis Montgomery, 2008) Conclusion To conclude, it must say that the assignment focused on writing the report to understand the strengths, potentials, customers needs and wants etc. to start the Tasty African Food restaurant in London. Thus, the assignment specified the target group with respect to the SWOT, porters factor analysis followed with the PEST analysis to understand the impacts of the factors in the environment and the business in the market place. References Ansoff, I. H. (2007) Strategies for Diversification,Harvard Business Review, Vol. 35 (5), pp.113-124 Barrow, C., P. Barrow and Brow, R. (2005), The Business Plan Workbook (5thed), London, United Kingdom, Kogan page Binks, M.R. and Ennew, C.T. (2007) the Relationship between UK Banks and their Small Business Customers,Small Business Economics, 9(2), 167-178 Collis, D. and Montgomery, C. A. (2008) Competing on Resources,Harvard Business Review, Jul-Aug p140-150 Grant, R.M. (2000) Contemporary strategy analysis, (3rd ed.), Blackwell, Malden Jorgensen, A. S. (2003) Restaurant marketing and advertising: for just a few dollars a day, Atlantic Publishing Company, Atlanta, GA. 140pp Lynn, J. (2009) Start Your Own Restaurant Business and More: Pizzeria, Coffeehouse, Deli, Bakery, Catering Business. Entrepreneur Press, New York, USA. 256pp Mason, C., and Stark, M. (2004) what do Investors Look for in a Business Plan? A comparison of the Investment Criteria of Bankers, Ventures Capitalists and Business Angels,International Small Business Journal, 22(3), 227-248 Mintel (2009) Eating Out Meal Occasions UK September 2009,www.mintel.com, accessed: 17/02/2011. Napier, H. A. (2006) Creating a winning business, Cengage Learning, London, UK, 444pp National Statistics (2010) Region in Figures West Midlands,www.statistics.gov.uk, accessed: 17/02/10 Porter, M.E. (2005) Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, New York Reuvid, J., Millar, R. (2003) Start Run your own Business, London, United Kingdom, Kogan page Riley, J. (2015) Promotion: Introduction. Business. Tastyafricanfood.com. (2015) Tasty African: Menu. https://www.tastyafricanfood.com/food/the-menu/ Williams, S. (2010) Financial Times Guides: Business Start up 2010 (23rded), Pearson Education, Harlow Zapoli, J. R. (2005) How to succeed in the Restaurant Business: Crunching Numbers now thats the bottom line, iUniverse, New York, USA. 211pp

Marketing Principles Essay Thesis Example For Students

Marketing Principles Essay Thesis A. Definitions1. ABCABC stands for activity based costing. This is defined as a method which identifies various activities needed to provide a product and determines the cost of these activities. I would say it is a method of breaking down the process of the business’ activity down to its root components. Then the causes of profit losses can be weeded out. For example, in a warehouse setting in which I worked, there were a few major departments which included receiving, stock dept., pick/pack, and shipping department. Merchandise traveled through the warehouse along this pathway. If say, production (boxes shipped) is down, we can specify the cause using this technique. Instead of just knowing that production is down, we may learn that the receiving dock is backed up , which leads to no merchandise for the stock dept., which results in orders being held up on the flows. Management can then find the cause of the backup in receiving and go from there. 2. ADEAStands for the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, which, according to text, prohibits age discrimination and mandatory retirement. It was established in 1967. It pretty much explains itself. Basically, there cannot be a maximum age for employees, and termination can not be based solely on age. A good example of this would be a mother returning to the work force. They may be frowned upon due to their age. I have read somewhere that people over the age of forty are in a protected class, and cannot be discriminated against by virtue of the law. 3. BARSThis stands for Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale. It is defined as a rating technique that relates an employees performance to a specific job related incident. This definition doesn’t really help me. It seems that the procedure is to define certain personality traits that are essential for a certain function, then to rate the prospective employee based on a scale of these trait. For example, someone applying to be a chef would be hired on base on a number of traits, one being prior experience. A ten on the scale would be something like, â€Å"10+ years of experience in a 4 star restaurant†, while a zero would be â€Å"no experience†. The employees â€Å"worth† could be determined by a composite of all these scales. 4. COBRAStands for Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act. This is defined as a policy established in 1985 which required continued health coverage (paid by employee) after job termination. This means that health insurers cannot discriminate base on a person’s employment status. An example would be a victim of a downsized company, forced to work for a company which does not provide health insurance, and so must continue their current plan. 5. E PStands for Effort yields performance, and is defined as: The degree of expectation that putting effort into a given task will lead to high performance. I would say, â€Å"Is it worth all the trouble?† For example, no matter how much effort I put into reading a first edition Crime and Punishment, written in Cyrillic figures, my performance in reading Russian will not improve in the least. However, if I put a good deal of effort in actually learning Russian from the beginning, taking a class or reading a how to book, there is a greater chance that my performance will increase. 6. EVAStands for Economic Value Added system. It is defined as a control system that measures after-tax profits minus the cost of capital invested in tangible assets. This , according to text, is intended to capture all the things a company can do to add value from its activities. I would guess that this method roots out all unnecessary assets, as can be shown by increases and decreases in this figure. If a company is buying new real estate every year, this may lead to loss of net profits, if the real estate is purchased carefully. This fact could be discovered using this method. 7.ERG TheoryDefined as a simplification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This theory has three levels; existence, relatedness, and growth. This is a simplification which makes this psychological theory applicable to the business world. The achievement of these needs make for a satisfied worker. A warehouse worker first want to feel safe and physically comfortable at work (existence), then would like to get along with their fellow employees (relatedness), and finally, would like to know that they are not in a dead end job. If it is 120 degrees in the warehouse, their first need is not met, and therefore no progress will be made. In a comfortable warehouse full of jerks, the worker will still have a ceiling of satisfaction. Finally, even the best environment combined with a dead-end job will make for an unhappy worker. 8. FDAFood and Drug administration, a government agency which approves the safety of food products and drugs as safe for human use. An example of their legislation is the approval of the abortion pill. Although some may believe it is immoral, the FDA still approved it. This is because they felt it was safe for consumption, which is the ethical decision. The FDA is not influenced by moral issues. 9. GATTGeneral Agreement on Tariff Trade, which basically mapped out international trade regulation. The main function is to protect the â€Å"little guy† from unfair trade practices. For example, the United States cannot hamper the chances of a third world county in the global economy, by imposing unfair tariffs, etc. This is an attempt to bride the gap between wealthy and poor nations, which evidently hasn’t accomplished much. 10. HMOStands for health maintenance organization. I couldn’t find much in the text about this one, although I know that it is the same as health insurers. Their major downfall, it seems, is that they have lost a â€Å"human touch†, which is at the root of the medical profession (Hippocratic Oath). For example, possibly an extreme example, a covered person who receives medical service could possibly not be covered because of something like forgetting to cross a â€Å"T†. All business. 11. HRHuman Resources, name for employees, or a department of a company which is responsible for recruiting, hiring, and keeping employees happy. They can implement strategies to departments for particular company goals. The functions of the HR dept. at my company which have affected me include hiring me, referring me to my department, orientation, explanation of benefits, and approval of my tuition assistance. 12. MBOManagement by objective, basically setting goals for employees as a means of management. Problems with this method of management is that it does not account for any major changes in the future. In my warehouse work, we were required to maintain a rate of 75 picks per hour. This is a decent environment for this type of management, since there is no major fluctuation in the work. It failed, however, to account that most of its employees couldn’t count to 75. How does the presentation of life journeys compare between Tita and Mikage in Laura Esquivel's Like Water for Chocolate and Banana Yoshimoto's Kitchen? Essay1. Chaos theory states that the universe is a series of random event, and that one insignificant even could have very far reaching consequences. In order to survive in a chaotic world, a species must be dynamic and adaptable. This is why lower orders of life have outlived higher orders by sometimes immeasurable amounts; their ability to adapt to a changing environment, e.g. ice ages, meteorites, etc. This type of thing can be conveyed to the mindset of a modern, successful company in today’s chaotic global environment. The strong and rigid used to be the most powerful in the stable industrial age, but now the lean, efficient, dynamic company under the new management paradigm will succeed. It’s like an old muscle car. They can beat any car in the straight drag race, but the smaller, light, better designed car will respond much more successfully to the winding, chaotic road. The reason chaos theory has influence management so greatly is because we are now in a chaotic world economy. One hundred years ago, there was no need for anything more progressive and dynamic than the old management paradigm 2. Culture shock is another result of the chaotic, globalizing economy. I have heard that if you don’t know how to bow in Japan, don’t, since it itself is a dialect, and more likely than not, you would end up insulting your host. Also, a firm handshake and eye contact are seen as a threat in Japan, although they are an essential in American culture. For the American who has learned this the hard way, they have experienced culture shock. When an American works or manages in a foreign land, they are almost always bombarded with new values of their new colleagues. It is impossible to determine what is â€Å"right†, and for now, it is essential that we adapt to the mores and ethics of these different cultures. As the global marketplace develops, I believe that all business practices will diffuse and mix with each other, and in time, form one established way of acting in a workplace setting. I could not find much about future shock, so I will wager a guess that it occurs when classically trained managers encounter the new global economy, and watch the demise of all the â€Å"truths† they hold dear, the same way an atheist would feel if she/he saw God face to face. I would also venture a guess that this occurred when the old managers, used to their power, saw their methods lose strength and validity. 3. A mission statement is defined in the text as a broadly stated definition of an organization’s basic business scope and operations that distinguishes it from similar types of organizations. This makes me think of the electronics store, â€Å"Best Buy†. I was browsing in the store when the salesman came up to me and went on to explain how he didn’t work on commission and that he would not pressure me into a high priced product.. The mission statement for that company probably stated that in order to set them apart from other electronics stores. A mission statement focuses the goals of the organization in order to be successful. Possibly methods such as ABC analysis could be used with a mission statement. The functions of the company, or lack thereof could be compared to see if they are consistent with the mission statement, assuming â€Å"success† is not being achieved. If they are, the mission must be changed, if not, the actions can be changed. It is important that the mission statement be flexible, as to â€Å"conform† to the new management paradigm. If it does not take chaos into account, it is likely that the company’s goals will not be achieved. 4. Total quality management (TQM) is defined as a management approach that focuses orgainzationwide attention on delivering total quality to customers and includes (1) employee involvement, (2) focus on the customer, (3) benchmarking, and (4) continuous improvement. This seems like another interpretation of the new management paradigm, as evident by the first part, employee involvement. TQM assumes that the input and involvement of employees is one of the main parts of providing customer satisfaction, which is the goal of any organization, chaos or not. Which leads to focus on the customer. This is a departure from the old focus on profits. In the old paradigm, profits were the measure of success. Now, as we globalize, it is more important to adapt to a variety of needs and desires of a broader base of customers. Benchmarking is setting a standard. This seems like an idea of the old paradigm, i.e. what was good enough yesterday is good enough today. This is not true, although benchmarking is vital as a measure of where not to fall below. This brings us to the fourth part, which is continuous improvement. What was good enough yesterday is NOT good enough today. This should apply to individuals as well as businesses. New benchmarks must be set for success in the chaotic atmosphere. 5. The concept of virtual corporation is the icing on the cake for ideas such as globalization and interdependence. Buy a personal computer and you will see a manifestation of a virtual corporation. 20 years ago, IBM, more or less, made the whole computer (chip, software, harware, etc.) Now when you buy, for example, a new Dell system, you may get a Sony monitor, Microsoft Keyboard, mouse, and operating system, Intel Chip, and a cannon printer. The idea is that Dell focuses on manufacturing the computers. They leave the speed of the chip and the clarity of the monitor to Intel and Sony, respectively. This results in a much more efficient corporation which isn’t â€Å"spread too thin†. It also results in a better product, and more profits for more companies, fueled by high customer satisfaction. One flaw in this type of setup is an interdependency between all of these companies. If Intel is having problems, then 99% of PC manufacturers are having them too. This is rarely the case, since each company is only concerned with the one task at hand. Virtual corporations are just another result of decentralization and more free and faster exchange of goods and ideas. BibliographyPrinciples of Marketing text, 1999Business Essays

Starship Troopers Review Essay Example

Starship Troopers Review Paper Essay on Starship Troopers I did not serve in the army. But it seems after this book was the first to question and whether it is good? And in general, I have nothing to reproach myself derailed quite honestly. However, until now, I was sure that as a result of lost nothing and gained a lot. But the book claims the opposite! I had heard that the film Verhoeven and the book on which it is removed, it is very different. But somehow subconsciously I did not expect much from the novel. Well military science fiction what to take with her? But no. Here the key word Heinlein. And this is not only a fantastic action movie, but rather a thriller and not Despite the fact that the military was not able to be me, in a period of my life I was faced with the reality of the army. The debt of the civil service have been in pieces, military camps, a lot of contact with the officers. This is certainly a very different reality, and to understand why it is so, it is necessary to pass through itself. All that sounds awful in the civilian world (the same hazing), it does not cause any particular emotion. Rigid rules and a clear procedure for alien army free air citizen. But precisely because there is another one. Forget about it most of the civilians, but it firmly to believe every soldier. We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Starship Troopers Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer  «action » in the book is present (especially in the second half), but by and large these scenes just need to reflect the reality in which there is the main character. Mandatory for any blockbuster melodramatic line, there is almost arbitrary. The book is about the society and its problems, the army and its place in this society, the conflict of personal and public, and hard how to resolve the conflict. God forbid, I do not want to say that the novel is boring and akademichen . When reading virtually impossible to come off! But there is a second bottom. I do not need to think long to see all these spaceships and evil aliens only a means to convey the message of the author. I my understanding of this idea passed in the header. A citizen of the society can be considered only those who are willing to pay for a society of their lives. It sounds pathetic, but the book is very familiar with both meaning and reasons for such a statement. Society under the leadership of veterans on paper looks perfect, but the feasibility of this idea is hard to believe. Will there be enough veterans on all leadership positions? Where to get the veterans in peace or relatively peaceful periods? Society problems (financial, moral, cultural, etc.) to penetrate into the army is quite easy, especially in the non-military time In general it is rather a utopia. But think about causes.

Habit 3 Put First Things First

Habit 3 Put First Things First Introduction Highly effective people are known to focus on discovering opportunities around them. They then utilize these opportunities to their advantage keenly taking into consideration their principles and values. They do this in order to achieve personal or organizational goals (Hergenhahn, 2005).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Habit 3 Put First Things First specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The decisions they make are centered and focused on already defined mission statements. For one to benefit fully from concepts of Habit 2 Put First Things First, one needs to have thoroughly understood and internalized Habit 1 and Habit 2. Habit 1 focuses on the individual’s character development (pro-activity). It is through the character that one develops in this stage that he or she is able to refrain from activities that do not contribute towards the achievement of the defined goals. Habit 2 begins with â€Å"an e nd† in mind. Stephen Covey (2004) emphasizes on creating a clear vision of one’s objective. This has to start with analyzing one’s current situation in order to know one’s position. It is by so doing that one is able to come up with a personal or organizational constitution. The latter draws clear guidelines and regulations towards achieving the short term and long term goals. The said goals converge to form the mission statement. The purpose of this study is to critically analyze the ideas and concepts of Habit 3 Put First Things First. The study reveals how this habit may be applied in the real world through use of practical examples. A look at the 2 X 2 matrix, delegation and recommendations will help to exemplify better the concepts of Habit 3 Put First Things First. The 2 X 2 Matrix Highly effective people recognize the activities that are important to them and those that are not important (Gazzaniga, 2010). With the use of 2 X 2 Matrix, Stephen Covey (2004) classifies the day to day activities into four categories; -Pressing matters 1 Urgent -Projects Important -Deadline driven activities Prevention Not Urgent 2 -Relationship building Implementing systems -Planning and preparations -Improving professional knowledge -Emails 3 Telephone Calls. Not Important Interruptions; a colleague walking in to the office Unplanned meeting Trivial 4 Busy Work Unproductive activities 1. Important and urgent are classified as Quadrant 1. 2. Important and not urgent are classified as Quadrant 2. 3. Urgent and not important are classified as Quadrant 3. 4. Not important and not urgent are classified as Quadrant 4. For effective management, Quadrant 1 activities should be given preference. All tasks should be evaluated to determine the important activities and their urgencies. It is good to deal with all important and urgent matters first. Deadline driven projects should be given priority too. Crisis matters and pressing problems sho uld be considered first as well.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To manage your life effectively based on the principles and values outlined in your mission statement, you have to focus on activities of Quadrant 2 especially the important activities which are not urgent. This works a long way towards improving your production capacity. For example, instead of embarking on planning each day at a time, it could be ideal for you to focus on weekly activities that are inline with the accomplishment of your personal goals and roles. For instance, a person who intends to reduce 10 kilograms of his or her body weight in one month can come up with a whole week schedule that outlines the activities he or she will undertake each day in order to reduce the desired weight. In the weekly plan, he or she can specify the diet to take each day taking into consideration the amount of calori es his or her body requires and adjust his or her meals to suit the required calories. He or she can also plan for the exercises to undertake each day of the week. He or she may allocate two days for jogging and three days for indoor gym activities. Another important aspect of Quadrant 2 involves preparation. A student who wishes to excel in his or her exams must do certain things that may enhance the chances of academic excellence for the particular student. This would involve studying all the course materials exhaustively and ensuring that he or she has covered the entire syllabus. He or she should embark on thorough revision of the entire course work. He or she can engage other students in discussions on the different topics in the course outline. A review of past exams would help him or her in understanding how the questions in the exams are set. The same case would apply to an engineer who wishes to be highly effective in his career. The engineer may consider enrolling for an a dvanced course in his profession. This would help him or her sharpen his professional skills and knowledge. He or she would also actively participate in seminars and workshops with an aim of boosting his or her professional attributes. Sometimes people engage themselves in activities that take a lot of their time. Those activities may not be necessarily important to the fulfillment of their goals. These are activities of Quadrant 3 which comprise urgent activities but which may not be very important or necessary. These activities are portrayed as urgent because they involve other people who may be important to people’s lives like friends and relatives. Activities of Quadrant 3 may have nothing to do with the realization of people’s personal goals. Sometimes these activities may be depicted as important. They may persuade many people to put more time and energy on them. They may not be as important as perceived. For example, in an office setup, a colleague may come to y our office to make an acquaintance. A small discussion may ensue and without both of you noticing, a substantial amount of time may eventually be wasted which would have otherwise been spent working towards the accomplishment of your organizational goals. Telephone calls may be other forms of distractions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Habit 3 Put First Things First specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Your callers make take a lot of your time by engaging you in conversations that may not have a productive impact on your work. It is important to know the purpose of the telephone call and assess whether it is worth giving your time to at that particular moment. It is from that point that you would be able to decide whether to take that call, postpone or ignore it. Though the internet is the greatest information tool, it has been misused in most organizations hindering the latter from achieving their goals. In certain c ases, you may find employees busy on the computers creating the impression that they are doing something substantial towards execution of the company’s mission. On the other hand, those employees may be busy chatting with their friends through the various social sites, responding to emails from their friends or surfing in the internet for materials of their personal interests. All these things are not essential in a person’s life that is why Covey (2004) classifies them as not important. They have very little significance to the attainment of the mission of any given company. Some small issues may arise in an organization prompting concerned managers to call for the so called â€Å"urgent meetings†. In such circumstances, the meeting agendas may not be carefully drawn and the parties participating in the said meetings may not be taken into consideration. Such meetings may not be adequately prepared for by all parties eventually leading to wastage of time by the concerned parties. These meetings may not add any value towards the fulfillment of the company’s mission. Quadrant 4 illustrates activities that are not important as well as not urgent. Certain people may give excuses of being busy with the intention of avoiding certain duties or activities given to them by their respective organizations. One may be surprised to find out that these people may not be as busy as they may portray to be. A closer examination on the lives of the said people may reveal that they may be engaged in activities that are not so important like watching movies, reading newspapers and novels. Ideally, it is important to reduce the time taken on these activities and concentrate more on the activities that would lead one to being highly effective in realizing either one’s personal or organizational goals and objectives. Delegation A highly effective person ought to understand that it is not possible to accomplish all the activities that will help him or her achieve the intended goals. It is therefore important that one identifies the specific activities to work on in achieving one’s goals. One needs to realize the strengths and weaknesses of the people that one plans to work with. By so doing, one would be capable of understanding the abilities of different people. When delegating, it is important to avoid telling the persons concerned what to do. It is imperative let them know the vision and goals to attain. Let them understand the desired values. Let them realize and appreciate your principles.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A person whose goal is to cut 10 kilograms of body weight in one month can delegate his or her diet planning to a professional nutritionist. If the person is a vegetarian, he can inform the nutritionist beforehand. By so doing, he would be letting the nutritionist know his values and principles. This way, he or she would have simply delegated some part his or her goal to a professional who can better handle the given assignment. Recommendation Proper time management is the key towards being highly effective for any one. With good time management, one may be able to effectively employ and implement Habit 3 Put First Things First. Conclusion Proper scheduling of one’s activities is the foundation towards implementing Habit 3 put first things first (Palmer Woolfe, 1999). Quite often, unexpected activities may arise and may have to be dealt with. A highly effective person should create a means of adapting to the unexpected activities when they arise. References Covey, S. R. (200 4). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. New York, USA: Free Press A Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc. Gazzaniga, M. (2010). Psychological Science. New York, USA: W.W. Norton Company. Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. Palmer, S. M., Woolfe, R. (1999). Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy. London, UK: Sage Publications.

Explain the 2 clauses and 3 Key elements Contained in the fourth Essay

Explain the 2 clauses and 3 Key elements Contained in the fourth Amendment that specifically pertains to search and seizure. be - Essay Example As provided by the second clause and explained in the Johnson case a valid search warrant must contain the following requirement: 1.) It must be issued by a neutral and detached magistrate; 2.) there must be presented to the magistrate an adequate showing of probable cause supported by oath or affirmation, usually in the form of an affidavit from a police officer; 3.) the warrant must describe with particularity the place to be searched and the items or persons to be seized. A neutral magistrate as provided in Shadwick v. City of Tampa (1972) must be â€Å"neutral and detached† and â€Å"capable of determining whether probable cause exists for the requested arrest or search.† Probable cause on the other hand means contemplates facts and circumstances within an officer’s personal knowledge that are sufficient â€Å"to warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief that an offense has been or is being committed.† Carroll v. United States (1925). And the s tandard of particularity as required for a valid warrant that the description be sufficiently precise in so that the officer executing the warrant can â€Å"with reasonable effort ascertain and identify the place intended (Steele v. Unites States [1925]) and that it leaves nothing to the discretion of the officers to inquire further (Marron v. United [1927)]).

Reentry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reentry - Essay Example While serving the sentence they could be subjected to mental abuse or mental health treatment. This results in less and less people participating in vocational or pre-release educational programs. Without the skill sets required to survive, with the police record that cant be wiped or erased, no family accepting or supporting them and no where to go, great majority is re arrested in less than six months. It probably would be easy to pick people for the crimes they have committed as it is a necessary act for smooth and safe functioning of the society. However reintegrating them into the society is a task that seems an undaunted perpetual problem. As the number of ex-convicts continues to grow, their alienation poses as a threat to the society, which their imprisonment is expected to protect. The story of Jean Sanders narrated by Amanda Ripley in Living on the Outside touches all the issues faced by the ex-convict. Jean was picked by the law several times for petty drug dealing and car thieving. All he wanted was a normal life. His struggle is a representative case. During the 1990s America witnessed multiplying of prisons. It was forgotten that the more are locked inside, the more needed to be released. Rehabilitation was not the game of the day. Outside the prisons the Federal Government restricted welfare and housing facilities to the ex-criminals. In such case, when no education to support, no vocational training, a non-accepting society and family who is not ready to take in, these ex-criminals turn to crime again. This has also resulted in the law enforcing system turning into supervisory system. Sanders had to make valiant efforts to pick up a better job. He is unable to do manual labor due to injury caused during imprisonment. This is again representative as most ex-criminals have serious health and medical problems. The parolees are expected to do several reporting. As quoted in the article, â€Å"the system is designed

Empowerment in health promotion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Empowerment in health promotion - Essay Example The aspects of empowerment, as used in general and in particular in the healthcare sector are presented below; emphasis is given on the theoretical approaches used for explaining the involvement of empowerment in the healthcare sector. It is proved that empowerment can be viable in health promotion but only if certain conditions exist; the internal and external environment of each case and the ability of the medical staff involved in the relevant schemes are quite important for ensuring the success of empowerment in the specific field. The differentiations identified in the interpretation of empowerment in health promotion can be considered as justified, taking into consideration the significant differences that can be identified in healthcare settings worldwide, as this issue is analytically explained below. 2. Meaning of empowerment In order to understand the role of empowerment in health promotion, it would be necessary to refer primarily to the context of empowerment, i.e. its ch aracteristics and mission, as identified in various social areas. Then, its use in health promotion could be evaluated taking into consideration the needs of the specific sector, as identified in healthcare settings worldwide. ... Based on the above definition, the following key characteristics of empowerment should be highlighted: empowerment needs to be provided, in other words, it cannot be assumed as existing. Rather it should be clearly given, under the terms that it can be used appropriately, meaning the skills and the capabilities of the person who is provided with empowerment (Barry et al. 2006). In any case, the discretion provided through empowerment is rather limited. In accordance with Ginnodo (1997) empowerment is differentiated from ‘dumping and anarchy’ (Ginnodo 1997, p.34). This means that empowerment needs to be based on specific rules/ suggestions which will be ordered without discriminating – always under the terms that the ‘empowered’ is able to understand and follow the particular orders. On the other hand, the elements and the requirements of empowerment can be differentiated across social and business activities; in business, the term empowerment is consi dered as a key tool for increasing motivation and self-confidence of employees (Quinn et al. 1998). From this point of view, in business area, empowerment is related to concepts and initiatives as organizational supervision, criteria of reward and job design (Quinn et al. 1998). Indeed, when empowerment needs to be evaluated as an element of the business environment, emphasis should be given to the following issue: at what level empowerment has actually promoted self-efficacy across the organization. At this point, the skills of the manager can be also revealed taking into consideration the tasks allocated to employees – under the terms that the goals set need to be achievable, based on the skills of each employee

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders This dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women. (2) Introduction In the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern at the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third. This has meant that women’s imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate. There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (2002:3) points out: Theories of punishment are usually expected to be gender-neutral: the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.’ But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised. This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and make recommendations for the future. Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time women’s imprisonment comes under the spotlight: Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998: 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of women’s imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women. It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002: 7) puts forward the question: ‘Are women punished differently to men?’ and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of women’s punishments; Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of women’s punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are ‘more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine’ (Carlen, 2002: 7). Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men; criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts; and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates. It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, ‘In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.’(Carlen, 2002: 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race. However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002: 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002: 8), certain women, in particular those ‘who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up in prison.’ Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels Thorpe: The likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment.’ (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994: 4) As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 2000:25). Despite this, it’s only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, ‘Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if it’s rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant’(from Nicolson and Bobbing’s, 2002: 1). This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance. (3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison Population In looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in women’s imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons; firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, ‘well, if you women want equality, you’ve got to take it’; secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed; thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments. Carlen summarises the responses given as thus: (1) more women are committing violent crimes; (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs; (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key; or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has – the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed – but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998: 51). Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998: 52) supports this view: ‘It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women.’ However, he also points out that, ‘the female prison population has †¦ risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen’; suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation. It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points out: In June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998: 54). However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and it’s impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious. Carlen (1998: 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women: †¦ despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990’s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have traditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998: 56) (4) Reasons Against Imprisoning Women The Feminist Response In looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000: 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment – retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this ‘just desert’ approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process. However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals. Fox (2000: 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, ‘treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment’. The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective sentencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed. Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, ‘enables us to forge links between two critical projects: the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.’(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments that: The pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible; but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment’(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000: 58). Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the State’s criminal justice system. Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000: 60) puts forward a potential reason for this: ‘†¦the majority of women †¦ in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the court’s readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violent’ The Specific Needs of Women This section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues. Family It could be argued that women’s identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (2000:62) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly. This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system. Carlen (1998: 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to women’s role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of women’s role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a woman’s prison experience (Carlen, 1998:74). One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more. In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, ‘If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. She’s being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage†¦ Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to.’ (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998: 79) Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mother’s imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the ‘unseen victims of a mother’s incarceration’. Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children. They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dresser’s 1991 research notes that, ‘children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves’ (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132). It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating women’s imprisonment. Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their families: Separations †¦ are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families †¦ Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope. As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered. Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their children’s safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998: 135) Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers – estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child. Mental Health The assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal women’s body could be perceived as intrinsically ‘abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in ‘hormone imbalance’ which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002: 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later. The Efficacy of Prison Carlen (1998: 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was ‘damage limitation’ rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998: 149) ‘†¦the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great †¦ A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount.’ (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998:151) The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that: firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime; secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the ‘proper’ role of women in society; and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and ‘anti-social’ controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a ‘double regulation’(Car len,1998: 153). Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, ‘Almost certainly they will require help of some description – but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199: 153) In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, ‘Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences.’ (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997: 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view. (5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders As can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice System: The Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005). In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences. Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997: 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of ‘unfair’ or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison. Thirdly, there is the concept of ‘net-widening’ based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody. Electronic Monitoring Sections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997: 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer  £564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997: 3 2). However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexible and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonment Special Units for female offenders who are mothers As can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp